PSY 306 Research Methods In Clinical Psychology

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PSY 306 Research Methods In Clinical Psychology

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PSY 306 Research Methods In Clinical Psychology

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Course Code: PSY306
University: Duke University

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Question:

Write a report on the given topic
Topic.
Implications of typical brain changes in aging for the effects of “best fit” social support systems and environmental modifications for the elderly;  

Answer:

Introduction 
The aging of the brain takes place due to the pathophysiological changes which occur in an individual over the whole lifespan. Aging is not genetically programmed, but it depends on the wear and tear of the body and also the biological level of restoration and adaptation. The brain changes lead to a lot of cognitive changes in an individual which mostly involves performance deterioration and reduces speed. These effects of the brain changes are severe on certain instances as it leads to memory loss like dementia. At this point, the elderly people require intensive care, and that’s when the social work practitioners come into the picture as they become the support for these elderly people. The study related to brain changes is essential to understand the development of the brain and also develop an understanding of those affected elderly people even as the citizens. The understanding is essential as that helps in providing aid to these needy people.
Implications of typical brain changes 
The brain develops at a very early age, almost by the age of 3 the complete brain development takes place. Since then the brain is an essential part of our body, however in the case of elderly persons the different changes have been observed over time, and they affect the body in physical terms. The brain changes lead to the declining of the cognitive abilities. However, these abilities are not declined evidently, but they are very subtle and takes place gradually (Adan et al., 2017). These are normally noticed with attentive tasks as the individuals have an impaired sense of hearing, vision and speed. Most of the automobile accidents take place in the case of elderly people. Aging is nothing but a consequence of inflammation, adaptation and neuronal degeneration.
Every neuron has some procedures and a cell body which is commonly known as dendrites which spread in several directions to join other neurons to receive signals. These neurons have axons which help in transmitting signals and lead to the formation of the white matter in the brain when there is aging the brain size decreases and contributes to the slower rate of information processing along with trouble in information recall. With the aging of the brain, the size, complexity and the efficiency of signal transmission among the neurons also decreases which eventually leads to cognitive dysfunctionality (Desbonnet et al., 2015).
There is distinctive evidence of morphological changes in the brain at the time of aging. The changes that occur in the brain are progressive and variable. The aging leads to the structural, functional and biochemical changes in the brain. There are other factors that have been observed is with  the symptoms of aging there is calcium dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the oxygen-related species are produced insufficiently in the brain. The complete metabolism rate reduces with the aging of the brain, and several hormonal deficiencies are observed.

Figure 1: Physiological Ageing and Cognitive Decline
(Source: Clarke, O’mahony, Dinan and Cryan, 2014)
Typical brain changes in aging 
It has been observed that with aging there have been several neurological disorders that effects the elder person severely. Some neurological diseases like Neurofibromatosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and so on. But these are the main diseases where the behavioral changes are observed (Purdon et al., 2015).
 In the case of Neurofibromatosis, there is the growth of tumors in the nerve cells, and the growths of those cells are stalled. Alzheimer’s disease refers to the gradual destruction of memory, ability to carry out daily activities and inability to think. This disease typically develops after the ’60s, and it is a form of dementia where the capability of cognitive functioning is lost. This can be genetic and can happen as a repercussion of other diseases.

Figure 2: Normal brain vs. Alzheimer’s disease
(Source: Navas et al., 2017)
Huntington’s disease is a genetic disorder and can affect the patient severely as it is a disease which leads to the degeneration of nerve cells. This a fatal disease and reduces the abilities to work and all kind of cognitive activities. It leads to the death of brain cells. This disease has no cure; no proper treatment has been found, but researches are being done. When a person is aged, then there is complete death of brain cells and loses the total cognitive ability.
Parkinson’ disease is also a genetic disorder and does not have much of a cure to this. This affects the central nervous system, and this leads to constant tremors which interfere with daily activities(Spear, 2018).
In the case of neurological diseases, there is no such cure as mostly they are genetic and no way of avoiding it as well. So a better understanding of the diseases can help the patients and their families as well.
A neurobiological underpinning of behavior 
The above-mentioned diseases have a great effect on the behavior of every affected individual. Neurofibromatosis has three separate stages, and they mostly have mental impairments like attention discrepancy and hyperactivity disorder. In these cases, these patients have a difficulty in learning. The patients with Neurofibromatosis have a loss of hearing and balancing issues are also noticed (DePasquale, Neuberger, Hirrlinger and Braithwaite, 2016). 
Alzheimer’s disease being a form of dementia affects the daily activities immensely as the patients lose the power to think and even loses track of time and even has difficulty in understanding spatial relationships. Their everyday life becomes a sort of illusion for them.
Huntington’s disease has a huge impact on the patient, and if an older person is surviving with this disease, then they lose the total ability to work or do anything at all as they have no sense about their surroundings or the work they need to do.
In the case of Parkinson’s disease, the patients are unable to do daily activities due to the consistent tremors, and with age, the tremors increase, and the ability to perform tasks decreases aggressively(Siddiqui et al., 2017).
To understand the behaviors of these patients everyone needs to be aware of the diseases and what can affect the daily behaviors. Instead of criticizing there should be proper care and attention to these patients.

Figure 3: The impacts on behavior
(Source: Pessoa, 2018)
Implications for social work practice 
The study of brain aging is very important to provide aid to people affected by neurological diseases. These diseases are not like normal diseases as most of these diseases lead to complete disability to move, vision, or hearing. They need a lot of cooperation and support from the family members and the society. To understand their behavior and the reasons for their behavior a general sense is needed to be developed among the social workers, society and the family members (Feldman, 2015). There are many institutions and age homes for the elderlies who need help as they are affected by these neurological diseases. There are pain and pathology centers where the people affected by Alzheimer’s or spinal deformities are treated and taken care of mostly because they live alone or they are affected by these neurological diseases. The people who are affected by this kind of diseases they experience a lot of fatigue, sensory deficit, pain and severe depression which makes their daily living unbearable and difficult. They require constant attention and care for the maintenance of their safety.  Their behavior changes drastically as they might not recognize anyone or behave in unpredictable ways and in this kind of scenarios it becomes difficult to keep them safely at home that’s when the social workers come in as they take care of these patients at separate places or in their own home. To deal with these patients, the study of brain aging has a great significance (Ortega, Martín & Clavé, 2017). To develop a complete understanding of the behaviors, it is essential to know about the diseases and the structural deformation of the brain. Like in the case of Alzheimer’s disease, it is a neurodegenerative disease with gradual progression where the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques are observed (Sue, Rasheed, and Rasheed, 2015). If the longitudinal studies are followed, then the degeneration is visible. Once the attendant develops an idea about these factors, then he or she will know how to treat, and their behaviors would not seem as unpredictable as earlier. For this kind of neurological patients, they are very much prone to harming themselves and can be suffering from suicidal depression (Maeshima, Osawa, Hayashi & Tanahashi, 2014). These patients need to be under watch and the triggers are to be identified by the attendant to keep the patient from being triggered to do any kind of deed and immobility is sometimes one of the best choices for this kind of patients (Stilling, Dinan and Cryan, 2014). The development in neuroscience is highly influencing the social work practice these days and the methods of treating these patients are being done through emotion and care rather than ruthless treatments like earlier methods.
The neurological disorder has huge involvement and impact in their surroundings. Whenever we go to visit them, we are always in fear that they might harm us. The thing that they might be suffering through are as follows:

ADHD, this stands for Attention Defective Hyperactivity Disorder. In this disorder, the patient suffers from the huge way of having attention which may cause huge irritation for the society, the people those who are passing around. They might act impulsively. We need to deal with this kind of patient in a very polite manner and need to act humbly.
The next is the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (Maeshima et al., 2014). This disorder can make that patient to not to talk to anyone to its surrounding. Again this can cause little annoyance for the people who are dealing with it.   
Next is the Broadline Personality Disorder (BPD). In this disorder, the patient suffers from impulsivity and also mood swing (Beghi, 2016). He or she might get exasperateddue to small things, or may not react to any of the questions asked to them. In such case, the people of his surrounding need to be little humble with that person and should not try to behave badly with them. 
Next can be depression. Sometimes depression can also lead to mental disorder. Due to a lot of over thinking on some problems can cause mental misbalance. Depression is more similar to feeling too much sadas well as not willing to go out and meet new people (Rabbitt, Kazdin, & Scassellati, 2015).  In such cases, we need to spend more time with them and help them to go out so that they would help themselves to overcome apart of taking medicines.
The next is bipolar disorder. This disorder can cause them to act a little weird, or they would behave dramatically. It can also be called as the disorder of anxiety. All we can do is to listen to them as much as possible and to be a little patient with
Afterward is the eating disorder. In this case, the person who is suffering from this they might feel too much to eat. They also forget to focus on their day to day lifestyle. They also start to gain weight because of having lots of food (Valiengo, Stella & Forlenza, 2016).
The next is the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This happens out of heavy stress such as combat military, assault, natural disasters or an accident. In such case, people are unable to overcome out of which they that gone through and would sufferfrom such disorder (Levine, Crimmins, Weir & Cole, 2017).
The next is the compulsive-obsessive disorder. In this case, the patient might suffer from obsession or just be thinking about how they look. In this case, they might start to behave in an unwanted manner.       

Neuro-scientific research on brain changes 
The aging of the brain is due to physiological changes throughout an individual lifespan. Further, the aging is general; it is not genetically programmed. It most probably affects the adult life they grow old and due to which they can forget many things even their family members (Rabbitt et al., 2015). As they grow old, their movements get slow, and their eyesight also starts to get weak. Sometimes it also happens they even get lost as while walking on the road. This is mainly caused because of aging. Sometimes it can be dangerous for society as well. Once we hit our late twenties, our brain aging process begin, and it also starts losing neurons (cells that make up the brain and nervous system). By our sixties, our brain starts to shrink. And these things are very common at the time when we start aging.
The symptoms by which we can analyze that our brain is suffering from illness. One might fill a headache, vomiting, changing in personality, nausea, difficulty with the movements and balance, numbness or tingling in arms and legs and many more (Camici, Savarese, Akhmedov, & Lüscher, 2015).
If a person is suffering from such neurobiological disorders, we need to help them instead of ignoring them. If we find such a person walking on the road and is unable to go to their place, we could help them instead of making fun of that person.
It has mostly been found that people those who drink or consume alcohol can also suffer from a neurobiological disorder in future.
General changes that occur doing brain aging are like the mass brain, density cortical, matte white, neurotransmitter kinds (Maeshima et al., 2014). Mainly it shows that this disease occurs when we start to age, and we can hardly find any proper solution to these problems. Despite we can go through some biological ways to overcome the problems.
The protective factors and measures
The corrective measures and factors for prevention are given below:
More than 450 million people are suffering neurobiological disorder. The protective factors for this disease are as follows:

Mental disorder has numerous determinants, prevention for these are neededto be done with huge efforts.
Major affective processes can help to reduce mental disorder (Tedaldi, Minniti & Fischer, 2015). If major actions are taken against this process, then it can help to reduce the burden of people those are suffering from this.
Implementation to this disease needs to be guided through available proof or evidence. These programmers are found for reducing the risk factors that occur while talking those process to prevent disease. This can also help to improve the mental health of the patient. Curing of diseases can also be effective to cost.      
The programmers and policies which are successfully achieved need to be made available widely. If these programmers are made available in a broad way, people can get aware of it and can also help to cure the disease in a little faster way.It might help to tackle this neurological disorder.
The knowledgeable program needs to have a proper explanation so that people would not get confused. If proper knowledge is provided, it can help to expand the program more widely.
Current the opportunities for prevention of mental disorder are distributed widely all over the countries (Wallace, Budgett & Charlton, 2016). It needs to be distributed in such a manner so that ever on one get aware of this program more broadly and can come to the conclusion.   
There needs be good financialsupport for the expansion of this prevention program of neurobiological diseases (Smith, 2016). If this program gets proper financial support, it may help a lot to cure the problems easily.
The effective prevention programs need to be made aware all over to the public in a wide manner.
For preventing mental disorder, protecting human rights is the best strategy to go through.      

Neuroscience and Social work 
Neuroscience has created a massive impact on social work. It will help the students to gain knowledge if this subject is included in their daily routine. Neuroscience is something that is related to mental disorder and everyone in surrounding needs to be aware of it. Mainly what happens is if we are not aware of it, we may not be able to help our surroundings which implies the people who are suffering from such diseases. Neuroscience is also sometimes referred to as brain science is related to the brain and also related to the nervous system (Tedaldi et al., 2015). There is also a disease named neural plasticity; this affects the brain throughout the lifespan. That is why the society needs to be off it so that we can help others those who are suffering from such diseases. That’s why neuroscience needs to be made available to the market so that people get to know about it as much as possible (Smith, 2016). Especially in schools, students must know about it so that they could gain knowledge about such science which shall help them in the future. Always it is not possible that we can visit doctors if we are known about it, we can help them for that moment till the doctors arrive.
So we come out of the conclusion that it is essential to bring neuroscience to the social work so that people can get aware of the things and this will help them to deal with the situation instead of getting panic at that moment.  
Addressing the mental health needs of older adults
Mental health needs of the adult can be addressed in a very polite manner. There are many ways to help them; those are as follows:

We need to be ready for the changes. As we know that they are suffering from such diseases, it is common that there will be changes with their behavior. We should be ready to accept it.
We need to talk to them with their problems.
We need to show them helpful gestures always when they are in our surroundings. As they like to have attention.  
We need to take proper care of their needs and requirements.
We need to be in touch with them; if we keep in touch with them, they will feel happy as they like to get the attention of their loved ones when they are aging (Schuch et al., 2016).
We need to make them eat and also drink carefully because when they are going through mental disorder, they start to behave childishly. So in such case, we need to take proper care of such person.
Whenever we give them some work to do, make sure that they do those work in a joyful way.    

Conclusion 
It is very clear that brain changes are very evident in the increase in chronological age, but the rate of change is not very clear. However, the rate of change is not well determined and the involvement of different processes involved in brain ageing. The brain changes can severely affect the behavior and cognition at several stages of molecular aging, tissue aging, and intracellular aging and so on. There are various sections where the researches can be conducted to develop a better understanding of the aging in the brain. These researches can help in understanding how a person is severely impacted by those changes and how to help those aged people in coping with those massive changes. The social work practitioners are required to understand the different neurological diseases which inhabit in those aged people to help them cope with those diseases. Some of these diseases don’t have any kind of cures which make the survival of these patients unbearable, and at this point, they require utter support from society and special care.
References
Adan, A., Arredondo, A. Y., del Mar Capella, M., Prat, G., Forero, D. A., & Navarro, J. F. (2017). Neurobiological underpinnings and modulating factors in schizophrenia spectrum disorders with a comorbid substance use disorder: A systematic review. Neuroscience &Biobehavioral Reviews, 75, 361-377.
Beghi, E. (2016). Addressing the burden of epilepsy: many unmet needs. Pharmacological research, 107, 79-84.
Camici, G. G., Savarese, G., Akhmedov, A., & Lüscher, T. F. (2015). Molecular mechanism of endothelial and vascular aging: implications for cardiovascular disease. European heart journal, 36(48), 3392-3403.
Clarke, G., O’mahony, S., Dinan, T. G., &Cryan, J. F. (2014). Priming for health: gut microbiota acquired in early life regulates physiology, brain, and behavior. ActaPaediatrica, 103(8), 812-819.
DePasquale, C., Neuberger, T., Hirrlinger, A. M., & Braithwaite, V. A. (2016). The influence of complex and threatening environments in early life on brain size and behavior. Proc. R. Soc. B, 283(1823), 20152564.
Desbonnet, L., Clarke, G., Chaplin, A., O’Sullivan, O., Crispie, F., Moloney, R. D., … &Cryan, J. F. (2015). Gut microbiota depletion from early adolescence in mice: implications for brain and behavior. Brain, behavior, and immunity, 48, 165-173.
Feldman, R. (2015). The adaptive human parental brain: implications for children’s social development. Trends in Neurosciences, 38(6), 387-399.
Levine, M. E., Crimmins, E. M., Weir, D. R., & Cole, S. W. (2017). Contemporaneous social environment and the architecture of late-life gene expression profiles. American journal of epidemiology, 186(5), 503-509.
Maeshima, S., Osawa, A., Hayashi, T., & Tanahashi, N. (2014). Elderly age, bilateral lesions, and severe neurological deficit are correlated with stroke-associated pneumonia. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases, 23(3), 484-489.
Navas, J. F., Contreras?Rodríguez, O., Verdejo?Román, J., Perandrés?Gómez, A., Albein?Urios, N., Verdejo?García, A., & Perales, J. C. (2017). Trait and neurobiological underpinnings of negative emotion regulation in gambling disorder. Addiction, 112(6), 1086-1094.
Ortega, O., Martín, A., & Clavé, P. (2017). Diagnosis and management of oropharyngeal dysphagia among older persons, state of the art. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 18(7), 576-582.
Pessoa, L. (2018). Embracing integration and complexity: placing emotion within the science of brain and behavior. Cognition and Emotion, 1-6.
Purdon, P. L., Pavone, K. J., Akeju, O., Smith, A. C., Sampson, A. L., Lee, J., … & Brown, E. N. (2015). The aging brain: age-dependent changes in the electroencephalogram during propofol and sevoflurane general anesthesia. British journal of anesthesia, 115(suppl_1), i46-i57.
Rabbitt, S. M., Kazdin, A. E., & Scassellati, B. (2015). Integrating socially assistive robotics into mental healthcare interventions: Applications and recommendations for expanded use. Clinical psychology review, 35, 35-46.
Schuch, F. B., Deslandes, A. C., Stubbs, B., Gosmann, N. P., da Silva, C. T. B., & de Almeida Fleck, M. P. (2016). Neurobiological effects of exercise on major depressive disorder: a systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 61, 1-11.
Siddiqui, I., Saperia, S., Da Silva, S., Jeffay, E., Pipitone, J., Viviano, J., … &Zakzanis, K. (2017). 72. Behavioral and Neurobiological Correlates of Attention in Schizophrenia in a Virtual Environment. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(suppl_1), S42-S42.
Smith, G. E. (2016). Healthy cognitive aging and dementia prevention. American Psychologist, 71(4), 268.
Spear, L. P. (2018). Effects of adolescent alcohol consumption on the brain and behavior. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(4), 197.
Stilling, R. M., Dinan, T. G., &Cryan, J. F. (2014). Microbial genes, brain &behaviour–epigenetic regulation of the gut-brain axis. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 13(1), 69-86.
Sue, D. W., Rasheed, M. N., & Rasheed, J. M. (2015). Multicultural social work practice: A competency-based approach to diversity and social justice. John Wiley & Sons.
Tedaldi, E. M., Minniti, N. L., & Fischer, T. (2015). HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders: the relationship of HIV infection with physical and social comorbidities. BioMed research international, 2015.
Valiengo, L. D. C. L., Stella, F., & Forlenza, O. V. (2016). Mood disorders in the elderly: prevalence, functional impact, and management challenges. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 12, 2105.
Wallace, G. L., Budgett, J., & Charlton, R. A. (2016). Aging and autism spectrum disorder: Evidence from the broad autism phenotype. Autism Research, 9(12), 1294-1303

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